Timeline: Social Protection in Jordan | 1963 to 2021

Publication date: June, 2024
Last updated on: June, 2024

Social Protection in Jordan in Historical Perspective: A Contextual Analysis of Legislative and Social Policy Initiatives

Authors:

Maria del Mar Logrono Narbona, Ph.D. Senior Advisor ARDD

Yousra Hassona, Ph.D. Candidate, Research Officer ARDD

 

The history of social protection in Jordan is intricately intertwined with the socio-political and economic history of Jordan. As the following pages demonstrate, social protection in Jordan cannot be studied in isolation from nation-state formation processes and regional economic and geopolitical dynamics. Unlike the development of social protection in Western European countries, war-time destruction had little impact on the establishment of modern social protection mechanisms. Rather, the political economy of the newly established nation-state of Jordan vis-à-vis its Arab neighbours determined the pace and style of social policies and the target population that would benefit from them. Arguably, social protection has been a critical factor underpinning the rule of the Hashemite Monarchy in Jordan and its social contract.

 

1. Social Protection Early On: From the Late Ottoman Period to Independence

According to social historians of modern Jordan, the Ottoman reforms known as Tanzimat had a profound impact on the social structures of the East Bank provinces, resulting in a partially detribalised peasantry and an elite comprising merchants, settlers, and tribal leaders willing to engage with the new mandate authorities. The British Mandate authorities further developed these social structures, recruiting Transjordanian tribesmen into the Arab Legion during the 1930s and 1940s and transforming the latter from a "corps d'élite" into a substantial military institution.

This redefined social and military landscape formed the core of what historian Tareq Tell termed the "Hashemite Compact" (Tell, 2015). According to the Jordanian historian, the Compact was composed of a nexus of formal organisations and informal institutions, ranging from a militarised welfare regime to dynastic patronage networks. The concept of the "Hashemite Compact" could be interpreted as an adaptation of the "authoritarian bargain" observed in other MENA countries during the early post-colonial period when analysing the social structure in the region. In Jordan, scholars argue, the Compact exchanged loyalty for economic security and sustained the East Bankers who formed the regime’s core of social support.

From a social policy perspective, the mandate authorities treated Jordan as a military-bureaucratic "enclave economy," prioritizing subsistence for Bedouin tribes and mandatory infrastructure over social welfare. Most British investments were directed toward strategic road building and defence, reflecting their strategic and security concerns (Ciro, 2022). Moreover, despite the League of Nations' proclaimed "civilising mission," welfare measures during this period were ad hoc responses to specific issues such as diseases, food shortages, and overcrowding, constrained by budget limitations (Ciro, 2022).

Towards the end of the mandate, two significant developments occurred: the Second World War (WWII) and the establishment of the Middle East Supply Centre (MESC) during the war. MESC was established as a governance institution that arguably shaped future social policy and planning. It regulated regional trade arrangements to alleviate wartime shortages and prevent food riots, becoming a powerful institution dictating regional production and consumption practices (Heydemann & Vitalis, 2000).

WWII also transformed perceptions of the state apparatus, which was no longer seen solely as a colonial tool but as an agent of public welfare (Heydemann & Vitalis, 2000); notably, it marked a shift from fearing unrest due to supply shortages to actively measuring people's needs (Ciro, 2022).

During this era, the first laws regarding social protection in British Transjordan were the 1926 Health Law and the 1944 Zakat Law, pioneering regulations for almsgiving and collection mechanisms in the Arab region.

 

2. Early Years of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (1950s and 1960s)

The initial post-independence years were characterised by rudimentary developmental infrastructure and internal challenges stemming from the demographic and economic crises induced by the Nakbah. These challenges included the influx of Palestinian refugees and a reduction in circular migration from Transjordan to Palestine (Tell, 2015).

Economic discontent and anti-colonial sentiment led to the formation of Al-Harakah Al-Wataniyya, Arabic for the “Jordanian National Movement” (JNM) (Tell, 2015), a short-lived, left-leaning political alliance seeking to improve socioeconomic conditions (Anderson, 2005). Simultaneously, aided by US support, the monarchy bolstered its military, forming the Jordanian Arab Army, which provided consistent remuneration and related benefits. The army emerged as a substantial revenue stream for numerous Jordanians and was sustained by considerable US subsidies, comprising over 50% of the national budget (Tell, 2015).

During these formative years, important steps were taken to guarantee social protection. The Jordanian Constitution was enacted on 8/1/1952 and reflected an overall understanding of social protection through several articles:

  • Article 6(3) stipulates that “the State shall guarantee work and education within the limits of its capabilities and ensure tranquillity and equal opportunities for all Jordanians.”

  • Article 6(5) also states that “the law shall protect motherhood, childhood, and old age, care for young people and those with disabilities, and protect them from abuse and exploitation.”

  • Article 23(2)(c) stipulates that “the State shall protect labour and enact labour legislation based on: Determining special compensation for workers with dependents and in cases of dismissal, illness, disability, and emergencies arising from work.”

 

Additional laws enacted during this period included legislation pertaining to subsidised commodities, such as wheat and sugar. The first Ministry of Social Affairs was established in 1956 through the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour Law No. 14 of 1956 regulating the Ministry’s mechanisms, functions, and responsibilities. The Ministry's overall objectives were to provide social security, ensure productive efficiency, and coordinate social services to all citizens. In 1959, the Military Retirement Law No. 33 was enacted, regulating the mechanisms and nature of retirement for members of the military. This law was followed by the Civil Retirement Law No. 34 of 1959, regulating the mechanisms and nature of retirement for public servants.

The emphasis on the protection of public servants, be they civilian or military, meant that many liberal professionals (doctors, dentists, and engineers) had to establish the requisite mechanisms for their own social protection. In this context, the professional associations that emerged in the years preceding independence and solidified their presence during the early post-independence era took it upon themselves to include in their bylaws the necessary mechanisms for minimum employment benefits. These benefits primarily revolved around pensions for widows, work-related disability pensions, and retirement pensions.1

In later years, the reforms spearheaded by Wasfi al-Tal included a five-year economic development plan (1962-67) that established critical institutions, like the Central Bank of Jordan, and expanded the Ministry of National Economy. Al-Tal's approach to modernisation aligned with allegiance to the monarchy, emphasising the role of the private sector (Schayegh, 2013; Verdeil, 2013). Despite the collapse of his first government, Wasfi al-Tal was reappointed by King Hussein to strengthen national identity and loyalty to the Hashemite regime, culminating in a new 7-year plan (1964-70) in Jordan. Al-Tal’s unique form of modernisation also emphasised economic growth, while addressing urbanisation pressures and concerns over social unrest (Ciro, 2022).

During this period, further foundational social protection guarantees and mechanisms were formulated, most of which focused once again on public servants (civilian and military):

1963: Issuance of the Military Health Insurance System, including the treatment of officers, members, and retirees of the Jordanian Armed Forces. It was amended in 1966 to include public security officers.

1965: Issuance of the Civil Health Insurance System No. 104 of 16/10/1965. It is considered the first voluntary civil health insurance system to be issued for beneficiaries and contributors. It was amended in 1966 to include the optional subscription of public servants.

1966: Social Security System for Government Employees No. 6 of 1966. The law governed the procedures for acquiring social security for civilian public servants, establishing a dedicated fund for this purpose.

1966: Public Health Law No. 43 of 1966, later amended by the Public Health Law No. 21 of 1971.

1970: Pension and Social Security System for Jordanian lawyers, enacted on 01/08/1970 and published in the Jordanian Official Gazette Issue No. 2252. This system regulates Jordanian lawyers' retirement and social protection and sets out its conditions, components, and the individuals entitled to it.

 

3. Consolidation of the Hashemite Rule (Black September to the 1996 Bread Revolts)

The economic crisis that followed the Six-Day War in 1967 and the Palestinian Naksa, followed by the events of Black September (1970), led to a period of political polarisation in Jordan which included the assassination of Wasfi al-Tal. The 1973 oil crisis escalated tensions as the military grew frustrated when realising their salaries were not keeping pace with the growing inflation impacting the price of essential commodities. These tensions culminated in the events of the military Zarqa Mutiny (Declassified CIA report, 1975; Ciro, 2022). The resolution of the mutiny arguably led to a significant transformation in the governing strategies which shaped social protection in two ways: It helped reconceptualise the economy and social welfare, while also strengthening the "Hashemite Compact" (Tell, 2015; Ciro, 2022).

In terms of economic planning, the government perceived its role as observing and mitigating global market forces. In this context, with support from foreign aid (accounting for 50% of the government revenue) and remittances, government policies were directed towards addressing the well-being of the population and managing their discontent. The Ministry of Supply (MoS) was established in 1974 to oversee the pricing and distribution of essential goods, compensating for market failures and enhancing social provision. This approach aimed to enhance subsistence and quality of life within the constraints of capitalism (Ciro, 2022).

Influenced by Arab socialism principles that had taken root in other neighbouring countries, this period was accompanied by an intense legislative effort to promote and consolidate social protection initiatives. However, as the main goal was to maintain the socio-political status quo, many measures were not envisioned as universal welfare initiatives, but rather as a means to fortify the “Compact.” This involved a system with ample benefits for those within it and minimal provisions for those outside of it.

Among laws illustrating these changes were:

1973: Amendment to the Military Health Insurance System to include officers, members, and retirees of the General Intelligence Directorate, as well as other categories as decided by the Higher Health Insurance Authority.

1974: Law on the Retirement and Social Security System for Pharmacists No. 46 of 01/06/1974, regulating the social security of Jordanian pharmacists (conditions, components, and individuals entitled to it).

1975: Amendment to the Military Health Insurance System to include civil defence members, public security officers, personnel, and retirees.

1976: Social Security System for Officers, Individuals, and Members of the General Intelligence Directorate No. 11 of 1976, regulating the social security benefits of GID members.

1977: Issuance of the royal decree establishing social security.

1978: Temporary Social Protection Law No. 30 of 01/11/1979. The Law included new categories such as old age, disability, work injury, and death insurance.

1978: Retirement and Social Security System for Physicians No. 59 of 01/10/1978, published in the Jordanian Official Gazette Issue No. 2813. This system regulates the social security benefits of Jordanian physicians and specifies its conditions, components, and the individuals entitled to it.

1979: Amendments to the Health Insurance System, including:

- Making the participation of all public servants compulsory.

- Defining the three degrees of hospital care.

- Giving access to treatment outside Ministry of Health hospitals.

1980: The first stages of implementing the Social Security Law began in large and selected establishments, followed by establishments having over 50 employees.

1981: Providing social security to public institutions and government departments not covered by the Civil Retirement System through the Social Security Law of 01/11/1981.

1982: The inclusion of municipalities and village councils in the Social Protection Law of 01/02/1982.

1983: Health Insurance and Social Security Regulations for Dentists No. 26 of 16/09/1983 and its amendments, published in the Jordanian Official Gazette Issue No. 3159 and issued pursuant to Articles 6 and 47 of the Dental Association Law No. 17 of 1972.

1984: Inclusion of Jordanian civilian workers in the armed forces and security services in the Social Security Law on 01/01/1984.

 

By the mid-1980s, despite the wealth brought by Iraqi and Lebanese communities escaping conflict, the Palestinian Intifada, oil price hikes, and a shift towards neoliberalism, the Reagan administration encouraged Jordan to seek support from the IMF. The IMF programme led to the gradual lifting of subsidies and taking the first steps towards downsizing the public sector. This combination, coupled with political grievances related to Palestine, led to the Ma’an protests of 1989 (Schwedler, 2021).

The shift in economic paradigm can be observed in the two laws promoting a poverty-targeting approach that has come to define social protection to this day, namely: The National Aid Fund Law No. 36 of 1986 and the Zakat Fund Law No. 8 of 1988. The former aimed to secure protection and care for poor and needy families and raise their standard of living by providing monthly and emergency financial aid through different cash and in-kind programmes. The Zakat Fund Law, the latter of the two, conferred legal personality upon the fund, providing it with financial and administrative autonomy to manage Zakat funds. The law identifies six categories of people who benefit from it: The poor and needy; poor students; poor orphans, the elderly, disabled persons, and the institutions that care for them; poor patients and the institutions that care for them; foreigners in need; and those afflicted by floods, bankruptcy, fires, earthquakes, etc.

The repression of the 1989 Ma’an protests marked a turning point in the way the monarchy negotiated its power with Jordanians. Politically, it paved the way for the first democratic elections in the country, with an important caveat: the electoral law increased the representation of East Bank tribes and governorates.

Economically, the collapse of the Jordanian economy after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the shift toward neoliberalism strained the country. During the late years of King Hussein's reign, Jordan faced a severe economic crisis due to various factors. The collapse of global oil prices in the late 1980s led to decreased demand for Jordanian labour in the Gulf, resulting in a 38% drop in remittances from expatriates. International aid to Jordan, especially from Gulf countries, also declined significantly to just 15% of the national income (Alissa, 2007). Jordan's lack of a clear strategic plan forced it to continue with its existing strategy, characterised by increased military spending and a growing public sector reliant on foreign loans for sustenance. These factors collectively led to a 10.7% reduction in GDP, a 25.7% increase in inflation, and a growing budget deficit. Consequently, Jordan turned to the IMF for support (Alissa, 2007).

The return of emigrants from the Gulf, coupled with austerity measures prescribed by the IMF, resulted in the 1996 Bread Riots in Karak (Hayyit Al Karak). The riots were ultimately triggered by the doubling of bread prices after subsidies were lifted, echoing earlier protests in Ma'an.

Social protection laws were minimal and included:

1992: Law No. 28 of 30/04/1992 establishing the Public Housing Corporation, published in the Jordanian Official Gazette Issue No. 3823. This law merged the Housing Corporation and the Urban Development Department.

1992: Law No. 33 of 16/09/1992 establishing the Development and Employment Fund, published in the Jordanian Official Gazette Issue No. 3853. The Development and Employment Fund has a legal personality with financial and administrative independence. Its main objective is to enable poor or low-income individuals, families, and groups as well as unemployed persons to engage in work and production to contribute to the fight against poverty and unemployment.

1995: The re-inclusion of new civil service workers in social security on 01/01/1995, after suspending their inclusion in the Civil Retirement System.

1996: Jordanian Labour Law No. 8 of 16/04/1996 regulates the private sector, including the employment contract, the rights and obligations of workers and employers, and mechanisms for resolving labour disputes.

After the Karak bread riots, in the final years of King Hussein’s reign, there was some renewed emphasis on social policies with the issuance of the following laws:

1998: Regulation for the formation of Occupational Safety and Health Committees and Supervisors No. 7 of 16/02/1998, followed by the instructions for the protection of workers and institutions from work environment risks enacted on 16/06/1998, and the Regulation on Prevention and Safety from Industrial Machines and Work Sites No. 43 of 1998.

1998: Retirement and Social Security System for Nurses and Midwives No. 86 of 1998 issued pursuant Clause (2) of Paragraph (a) of Article (16) of the Nurses and Midwives Syndicate Law No. 18 of 1972.

1999: Nutrition project for underprivileged public school children with the aim of improving their nutritional and health status by providing a daily meal.

 

4. King Abdullah II and the Grip of Neoliberal Reforms in the MENA Region: 1999-present

The accession of King Abdullah II to the throne was marked by continued support for a neoliberal economic model while strengthening ties with and support for the military as a pillar guaranteeing the protection of the Jordanian monarchy (Al-Nuaimat & Khairallah, 2013; Alissa, 2007; Tell, 2015). The new economic policy was implemented by appointing prime ministers who were well-versed in economics, such as Ali Abu Ragheb and economic adviser Bassem Awadallah. The strategy involved aligning with young Palestinian and Jordanian economic elites, although it stirred tensions with traditional factions, necessitating royal intervention for reconciliation despite some detachment from societal realities (Cordesman et al., 2016; Al-Nuaimat & Khairallah, 2013; Alissa, 2007; Tell, 2015).

The neoliberal turn also witnessed an expansion of privatisation policies that negatively impacted State institutions without a corresponding improvement in efficiency or budget benefits, often shrouded in secrecy and corruption (Al-Nuaimat & Khairallah, 2013). Additionally, it led to the launch of various economic projects, such as establishing the Aqaba Economic Zone, free trade agreements with the US and EU, and Jordan's accession to the World Trade Organization (Alissa, 2007).

Simultaneously, the military grew in prominence under King Abdullah II's reign as evidenced by the increased military spending. This benefited East Bank Jordanians, providing them with job opportunities and social welfare while elevating the military's stature in society and promoting loyalty to the monarchy (Baylouny, 2008).

However, neoliberal policies, trade liberalisation, privatisation, and public spending rationalisation undermined social protection. The State's reduced role and shedding of responsibilities, such as reducing fuel and food subsidies, triggered negative consequences, including shrinking State institutions, reduced government spending, fewer job opportunities, increased unemployment, and rising poverty (Ryan, 2011; Alissa, 2007). In response, unregulated social safety nets, including family associations and reliance on expatriate remittances, emerged as compensatory measures, alleviating the burden on the State but also impeding reform. Additionally, the private sector contributed by supporting low-income families through medical and educational assistance (Alissa, 2007).

In 2006, Jordan adopted the National Agenda for 2006-2010 to transform the country into a knowledge-based economy with increased added value, productivity, employment, and improved living standards for Jordanians (WB, 2009). However, this agenda primarily focused on neoliberal practices, such as privatisation, support for the private sector, and competition laws (WB, 2009). In terms of social protection, it targeted healthcare, social security, and poverty alleviation through various measures (WB, 2009). However, it leaned towards poverty alleviation through coverage and direct financial assistance rather than building a comprehensive social protection system.2

Societal discontent with these changes grew due to the selective implementation of economic reforms, bureaucratic obstacles, weak public administration, lack of coordination, limited involvement of civil society, and persistent corruption (Cordesman et al., 2016; Alissa, 2007).

During the 2000s, a labour movement emerged in Jordan, characterised by labour protests focused on poor living conditions, high unemployment, low wages, and the lack of regulations guaranteeing social protection and job security. These protests were organized by groups such as the Aqaba Port workers, phosphate company staff, and public sector day labourers (Ababneh, 2016; Adely, 2012). In 2011, the protests coalesced under the banner of Al-Hirak (The Movement), encompassing various segments from both the private and public sectors. These protests sought social justice and contested the corrupt neoliberal and privatisation policies that were raising the cost of living, lowering wages, and increasing unemployment (Ababneh, 2016; Adely, 2012).

These movements articulated demands for improved work conditions, wages, and social protection alongside broader calls for battling corruption, implementing economic reforms, and safeguarding freedoms (Ababneh, 2016; Adely, 2012). The number of labour protests increased from 140 in 2010 to 607 in 2011 (Ababneh, 2016).

Regional events, especially the 2011 Arab Spring uprisings, profoundly impacted Jordan. Protests in Jordan called for accountability, economic and political reform, elections, and strengthening the legislative authority to mitigate the repercussions of past neoliberal policies (Al-Nuaimat & Khairallah, 2013; Alissa, 2007; Ryan, 2011; Salameh, 2017). These policies fuelled corruption, led to the mismanagement of public funds, and enabled the undervalued sale of State assets to private parties. They also triggered a conflict between Palestinian elites and businessmen in the financial sector on the one hand and, on the other, East Bank Jordanians in the public sector who sought to counter privatisation (Tell, 2015; Al-Nuaimat & Khairallah, 2013; Alissa, 2007; Ryan, 2011). In the political sphere, insufficient political reform resulted in weak parliamentary representation, which widened the gap further between the regime and society (Al-Nuaimat & Khairallah, 2013).

In response to these challenges, the government implemented measures to pacify discontent rather than enact the demanded economic and political reforms. The National Dialogue Committee discussed electoral law amendments, but its recommendations faced contestation and remained unimplemented. A constitutional review committee proposed superficial amendments that sidestepped core contentious issues, and corruption investigations remained veiled in secrecy (Al-Nuaimat & Khairallah, 2013). The appointment of Taher al-Masri, a Jordanian-Palestinian, to lead the National Dialogue Committee diverted blame away from the monarchy and avoided firm enforcement policies (Ryan, 2011). Additionally, in 2014, the government issued a new Social Security Law (No. 1 of 2014) aiming to achieve equity among retirees, ensure distributive justice, strengthen institutional governance, ensure the sustainability of the insurance system, and optimize investment.

A review of social protection laws since 2000 highlights five areas of interest concerning social policy:

 

1- Focus on finding health insurance formulas for citizens away from universal coverage. Access to healthcare is an internationally recognised human right. Additionally, universal health coverage is expressed in the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals and targets, adopted by nations of the world in 2015. The Constitution of Jordan does not recognise the right to health, and access to health insurance remains elusive for over 30% of the population. Legislative efforts to ensure access to health insurance, however, have occupied much attention. To date, no formula has been agreed upon, and it remains a point of tension between citizens and the State as out-of-pocket expenditure on healthcare continues to increase (Al-Duraidi, 2023):

2000: The Health Insurance System for the Jordanian Armed Forces No. 4 of 2000, issued pursuant to Article 134 of the Law on the Service of Officers in the Jordanian Armed Forces No. 35 of 1966, and the Amended System No. 32 of 2007. It regulates health insurance for members of the armed forces and determines the categories of contributors and beneficiaries of insurance, in addition to the services provided.

2004: The Civil Health Insurance System No. 83 of 2004 allows married persons to include their spouses in the insurance scheme. The persons entitled to coverage by the contributor voluntarily for certain fees were identified, and the categories of early retirees benefitting from social security were included.

2006: Instructions activating Article 30 of the Health Insurance System No. 83 of 2004, which extended coverage to people over sixty and pregnant women.

2007: Instructions to activate Articles 30 and 31 of Health Insurance System No. 83 of 2004, which included non-Jordanian citizens, ensuring their coverage with prescribed payments based on age groups. The instructions also offered health insurance to workers in companies and institutions of all nationalities according to age groups and prescribed payments, provided that all workers within the enterprise are covered.

2007: Regulation No. 46 of 2007 amending Health Insurance Regulation No. 83 of 2004. The new regulation included single, non-working women with the contributor who supports them legally in return for a prescribed payment. The value of the contribution of ministers and employees of the first group of the higher category and the mechanism for their treatment were also amended.

2008: Public Health Law No. 47 of 17/08/2008 regulating the health sector, including the responsibilities and tasks of the Ministry of Health, health insurance, dealing with diseases, etc.

2008: A decision by the Council of Ministers to offer health insurance coverage to 300,000 citizens under the social safety net category.

2015: The Social Security Corporation Insurance Benefits System No. 15 of 01/03/2015.

2015: Regulation concerning the Insurance and Medical Committees of the Social Security Corporation No. 16 of 01/03/2015.

2015: Regulation concerning the Special Affairs of Insured Members of the Military No. 37 of 17/05/2015.

2016: Instructions from the Prime Minister’s Office to include those over eighty years of age in the Civil Health Insurance System free of charge.

2018: Council of Ministers decision:

1- Offering health insurance for free to Jordanian citizens over 60.

2- Covering all cancer patients by civil health insurance against cancer.

2022: Amending the Instructions for Physical Rehabilitation Aid No. 7 of 2022.

2022: Decision of the Minister of Health to add the National Aid Fund beneficiaries to the Civil Health Insurance System.

2022: Introducing amendments to the health insurance system to expand the coverage base.

2023: Occupational Safety and Health System and Prevention of Occupational Risks in Institutions No. 31 of 14/05/2023.

2023: Preventive and Curative Medical Care System for workers in institutions No. 32 of 14/05/2023.

 

2- Efforts to enhance social security benefits for workers in the formal economy, such as maternity and paternity rights and unemployment benefits, without extending coverage to workers in the private sector, who represent a significant portion of Jordan's growing informal economy.

2001: Social Security Law No. 19 of 2001.

2003: Inclusion of new military personnel in social security on 01/01/2003.

2004: Cooperation and Social Security System for members of the Jordanian Journalists Syndicate No. 65 of 29/04/2004, published in the Jordanian Official Gazette Issue No. 4656.

2008: The expansion of coverage for establishments employing fewer than five workers, starting at the Aqaba Special Economic Zone. It followed a gradual timeline to encompass all workers in the Kingdom. The process was implemented in various governorates: Irbid on 01/11/2009, Ma’an and Petra on 01/03/2010, Karak and Tafila on 01/05/2010, Madaba on 01/06/2010, Mafraq and Balqa on 01/10/2010, Jerash and Ajloun on 01/12/2010, and finally in the governorates of Amman and Zarqa on 01/05/2011.

2010: The Temporary Social Security Law No. 7 of 01/04/2010.

2014: Social Security Law No. 1 of 2014 incorporated numerous reforms, including promoting justice among retirees, distributive justice, enhancing institutional governance, optimizing investment, and guaranteeing the sustainability of the insurance system.

2015: Regulation on Inclusion in the Social Security Corporation System No. 14 of 01/03/2015. This system regulates the inclusion of non-public establishments, Jordanians who wish to voluntarily join the Social Security Corporation, and self-employed persons and their partners in the Social Security Law.

2020: The Social Protection System Related to Maternity Insurance No. 93 of 20/10/2020.

 

3- Enactment of poverty-targeting social policies and legislation. Among the most important strategies drafted in the past decade based on the poverty-targeting approach are the National Strategy to Combat Poverty 2013-2020, the National Strategy to Combat Poverty 2019-2025, and the National Strategy for Social Protection 2019-2025.

In addition, the following poverty-targeting legislations have been enacted:

2014: Urgent Financial Aid Instructions for Relief and Assistance to Needy Families Exposed to Natural Disasters of 2014.

2018: System No. 114 of 16/102018 on the Support Fund for Students at Jordanian Official Universities, published in the Jordanian Official Gazette Issue No. 5538.

2018: Draft Amendment to the Zakat Law of 1988. The draft amendment to the Zakat Law is still under deliberation by the competent authorities. The most prominent amendments brought by the law are the payment of the value of Zakat from the income tax incurred by the taxpayer instead of paying it from the total income. The law also establishes a public institution for Zakat instead of the current Zakat fund; seeks to encourage individuals to pay their zakat to the Public Institution for Zakat, increasing the institution's revenues and further expanding its projects, thus reaching more beneficiaries. It also calls for the establishment of a body of scholars whose task is to control the expenditures of Zakat funds within the Public Institution of Zakat.

2019: Takaful 1, the supplementary support programme with a package of 200 million dinars over three years to implement the government's priorities in the area of solidarity, based on the national strategy for social protection, by strengthening the network of protection and social care targeting poor and needy families. Around 140,000 families benefited from it through the five services it provided: direct cash support for poor families, the health insurance program, energy-saving projects, support for public transportation services programs, and supporting school meal programs targeting poor students in poor areas.

2020: Takaful 2, the Cash Support Project for Poor and Vulnerable Families Affected by COVID-19 (Emergency Cash Transfer Project), supported 270,000 vulnerable families affected by COVID-19.

2020: Takaful 3, dedicated to daily workers affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in the informal sector, targeted 100,000 families with a value of 100 million dinars.

2021: National Strategy for Food Security 2021-2030.

2022: Amending the Instructions for the Unified Cash Support Programme for Needy Families No. 3 of 2022.

2023: Amending the Financial Aid Instructions for the Protection of Needy Families No. 3 of 2023, read together with the Financial Aid Instructions for the Protection of Needy Families No. 2 for 2023.

2023: A proposal to lift fuel subsidies in the 2023 budget by the Jordanian government.

 

4- Advancing social protection principles. While limited efforts have been made on this front, it is worthwhile mentioning the Law on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities No. 20 of 01/06/2017. Despite being the most advanced legal framework of its kind in the MENA region, much of its progress remains “ink on paper” (Logrono and Messieh, 2022)

2019: National housing programme for low and middle-income people through the General Organisation for Housing and Urban Development. It includes the construction of integrated housing complexes with services, in addition to the sale of serviced residential plots in several governorates in the Kingdom, the first of which is the residential city of Al-Majd in the Zarqa Governorate.

2021: Elderly Care Regulation No. 97 of 2021.

 

Lastly, it is worth mentioning the legal framework established as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. In March 2020, the Government of Jordan issued its Defence Order No. 9 of 2020 as per the provisions of Defence Law No. 13 of 2020 to ensure workers livelihood and job stability and to sustain the work of the public and private sectors to protect the national economy. Despite its intentions, and as documented by civil society organisations, the defence order failed to meet workers’ basic needs and effectively reduced employees’ salaries by 30-50%. This situation led to an increase in labour-related protests organized by workers in 2021 by 55% compared to 2020, increasing from 145 protests to 225 in total (Phenix Center, 2022).

 

Conclusion

Legislation and social policy do not happen in a vacuum. This overview aimed to explain the historical context of the development of legislative initiatives and social policies concerning social protection in Jordan. Understanding the economic, social, and political context in which these legislative and policy initiatives took place is important to comprehend their meaning and historical trajectory, and it constitutes a critical step towards formulating inclusive social protection policies in Jordan now and in the future.

The trajectory of social protection in Jordan has not been linear; rather, economic and political concerns, along with geopolitical realities, have permeated the formulation of social policies in the country. While the instrumentalisation of social protection for political ends has been intrinsic to the development of social policies and social protection in Jordan, its history also speaks of solid awareness among large sectors of the Jordanian population of their social rights and their efforts to achieve them. Listening to different social actors and learning about their trajectories brings a nuanced understanding of efforts made over time. This should help policymakers identify critical stakeholders and engage them in meaningful and participatory social policy-making processes.

 

 

References

 

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https://www.mol.gov.jo/Default/Ar/

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https://naf.gov.jo

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https://www.ssc.gov.jo/

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https://www.moh.gov.jo/Default/Ar

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https://www.jaf.mil.jo/ContentstemplateC/Armed_Forces_Retirement_Lawar.aspx

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http://www.def.gov.jo/Pages/viewpage?pageID=73

 

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1 The Doctors’ Association was established in 1944. As part of its mandate, it pledged to “defend the dignity of doctors and their families in cases of need and old age.” The Engineers’ Association was formed in 1948 but was officially recognised in 1949. The Dentists’ Association was established in 1952.

2 The National Agenda initiative to define the national priorities for Jordan for the 2006-2010 period included a set of objectives related to the social protection sector: Establish a National Council for Development and Poverty Alleviation; Develop a comprehensive national policy on social development and productivity enhancement; Enhance the capabilities of human resources to implement poverty alleviation projects; Develop a clear understanding of the root causes and characteristics of poverty; Restructure the National Aid Fund; Assist unemployed and poor persons and integrate them into the labour force; Enhance the skills of social care workers; and Increase the penetration of microfinance services in poor communities.